Key Privacy Management Concepts and Definitions

A privacy program seeks to protect and manage multiple categories of information. Among other pieces of data, a privacy program seeks to protect trade secrets and other confidential or proprietary information about an organization. Most importantly, however, a privacy program governs an organization’s use of “personal information,” sometimes referred to as “personally identifiable information.”

a. Identified and Identifiable Personal Information

In some jurisdictions, such as the United States, laws may differentiate between information that makes an individual “identified” from information that makes a person “identifiable.”

An Identified Individual is one who can be ascertained with certainty—for example, by reference to a unique government-issued identification number.

An Identifiable Individual, on the other hand, is one that can be indirectly identified through a combination of various factors. As the European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation (“GDPR”) defines it, “an identifiable natural person is one who can be identified, directly or indirectly, in particular by reference to an identifier such as a name, an identification number, location data, an online identifier or to one or more factors specific to the physical, physiological, genetic, mental, economic, cultural or social identity of that natural person.”¹

The difference between an identified individual and an identifiable individual is best thought of as a sliding scale; the more closely information is associated with a person, the more likely they are to be considered an identified individual. As an example, knowing that a person lives in a specific city would not make that person identified, as many others also live in any given city. Combine that city information with a street address and that combination will still likely not identify one specific person. That information could, after all, be associated with any member of the household. But, if you associate that street address with even more information, such as the height and sex of a person living at that address, it might (or still might not) be possible to identify someone with certainty. At the other extreme, information such as a social security number will identify a specific person without reference to any additional information.

Typically, a privacy program will govern an organization’s use of all “identifiable” personal information.

b. Sensitive Personal Information

There is a narrower category of personal information often referred to as “sensitive personal information.” Information falling into this category generally relates to data that is particularly sensitive for one reason or another. The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in Europe, for example, specifically defines “special categories of personal data” to include information related to “racial or ethnic origin, political opinions, religious or philosophical beliefs, or trade union membership, and the processing of genetic data, biometric data for the purpose of uniquely identifying a natural person, data concerning health or data concerning a natural person’s sex life or sexual orientation. . . .” ²

Some laws place heightened protections over the use of sensitive data or seek only to regulate particularly sensitive data. Article 9 of the GDPR, for example, places restrictions on the processing of sensitive personal data, with only certain identified exceptions.³ A good example of this in the United States is the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (“HIPAA”), which only regulates access to personal health records; it does not regulate all personal information that might be maintained by a health facility. Similarly, the Fair Credit Reporting Act (“FCRA”), tighter restrictions are placed on the disclosure of medical records than the restrictions applicable to other information contained in a “consumer report.”⁴ These are just two examples of many found throughout American law.

c. The Role of Encryption, Anonymization, and Pseudonymization

With rare exception, non-personal information is not subject to data and privacy protection laws. Importantly, under many laws and regulations, it may be possible to take data that would otherwise be considered personal information and turn it into non-personal information by de-identifying or anonymizing that data.

One way this occurs is through the Encryption of data, which is the process of taking data and putting it into an unrecognizable form.⁵ Anonymization, on the other hand, is technique whereby data is stripped of its identifying information. A closely related technique is the “Pseudonymization” of data. This is the process through which information is associated with a pseudonym such that it can no longer be attributed to a specific person without the use of additional information.⁶ The benefit of pseudonymization compared to anonymization is that this process can be reversed so that the information can be re-identified with a specific person.

d. The Source of Information

In addition to the nature of the information at issue, it is also important to understand the source of information. Personal Information can be derived from any number of sources. These can include public records (e.g., court filings), publicly available information (e.g., publicly accessible social media accounts), and non-public information. The protection of personal information is focused most heavily on non-public information, but laws and regulations may sometimes affect information coming from publicly available sources, or even data from public sources. As an example, court rules often permit litigants to file certain types of information or documents under seal, even though that information would generally be considered public information.

e. Data Subjects, Controllers, and Processors

In discussing personal information, it is also helpful to define certain terms related to the processing of data. Many of these terms originated in Europe but have become somewhat standard terms used throughout the privacy and data security industries.

The term “processing,” or “data processing,” is a term that refers to almost anything that is done with personal information—everything from collection to storage to deletion. The GDPR, for example, expansively defines data processing as “any operation or set of operations which is performed on personal data or on sets of personal data, whether or not by automated means, such as collection, recording, organisation, structuring, storage, adaptation or alteration, retrieval, consultation, use, disclosure by transmission, dissemination or otherwise making available, alignment or combination, restriction, erasure or destruction.”⁷

Three categories of persons are involved in processing personal information: a data subject, a data controller, and a data processor.

A Data Subject is the individual whose personal information is being processed.⁸

A Data Controller, on the other hand, is the organization (but it may also be an individual) that decides how personal information is being utilized and processed. As defined by the GDPR, a controller is “the natural or legal person, public authority, agency or other body which, alone or jointly with others, determines the purposes and means of the processing of personal data.”⁹ The organization that is the data controller is typically subject to the heaviest amount of regulation by privacy and data protection laws.

Lastly, the term Data Processor refers to any organization or person that processes data on behalf of a data controller.¹⁰ Under this definition, one organization may be both a data controller and a data processor, depending on what is processed and on behalf of whom. That is to say, one organization can be a data controller with respect to the processing of some data but a data processor with respect to the processing of other data.

Likewise, the term data processor also refers to all subsequent data processor down a chain of outsourcing. Accordingly, if a data controller processes certain types of data itself on behalf of the controller, but also contracts with a third-party to conduct further analysis on that data, both parties would be considered data processors.

The main difference between a data controller and a data processor is who has ultimate authority over the data. A data processor is not permitted to do any processing beyond what the data controller permits or beyond what the data controller itself could do with that information. Because a data processor acts on behalf of the controller it necessarily servers the controller’s interest rather than its own interests.¹¹ Even though a data controller is the party that has ultimate authority about how data is processed, both data controllers and data processors implement their own separate privacy programs.

Privacy professionals must be aware of the fact that the terms described above are only general terms and definitions. Numerous laws use different names to refer to these same concepts. In the United States, for example, a data processor is referred to as a “business associate” under the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (“HIPAA”)¹² and as a “service provider” under the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act.¹³